Abstract

This paper explores migration patterns of Myanmar nationals to Southeast Asia, focusing on Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore. With between 1.4 and 3 million Myanmar workers in Thailand and substantial numbers in Malaysia and Singapore, these migrants include both economic laborers and refugees fleeing ethnic conflicts and political repression. Motivations for migration vary, driven by economic opportunity and escape from violence, with Thailand as the main destination due to its proximity and economic appeal. However, migrants face challenges such as exploitation, poor working conditions, and discrimination, especially in informal labor sectors. Refugees are particularly vulnerable to trafficking and abuse. The ongoing conflict in Myanmar suggests continued migration, while the COVID-19 pandemic worsened conditions for migrants, increasing xenophobia and restricting access to work. This study highlights the complex dynamics of Burmese migration and its implications for host countries' labor markets and human rights.

Burma, renamed Myanmar in 2010, has been a land of immigration for decades. This immigration is mainly concentrated in neighboring countries, notably Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore. There are generally between 1.4 million and 3 million Myanmar workers in Thailand, with the number potentially rising to 4 million if illegal workers are taken into account (International Organization for Migration [IOM], 2020). In Malaysia, Myanmar immigrants number more than 300,000 (Penang Institute, 2020), while in Singapore, there are around 80,000 individuals (Thzin & Campbell, 2023). It is important to note that a distinction should be made between economic immigrants seeking work and refugees fleeing conflicts, such as those involving ethnonationalist armed groups and the Burmese junta (UNDP, 2025). The term "Myanmar immigrant" refers to all citizens of Myanmar without considering their ethnic or religious backgrounds (UNDP, 2025).

Due to their diverse origins and socio-economic statuses, the motivations of Myanmar immigrants vary greatly (IOM, 2020). Many Rohingyas fled military repression and settled in Malaysia, believing they would integrate more easily into a Muslim-majority country (Brinham, 2025). However, the lack of legal recognition and the prohibition of obtaining legal employment force Rohingya refugees to seek work in the informal sector (Brinham, 2025). The Chin ethnic group is also a major immigrant group in Malaysia, with a concentration in Kuala Lumpur and on the west coast of the country (LFT Fund, 2019). The Karens, like the Bamars, Kachins, and Mons, predominantly migrate to Thailand due to its geographical proximity and economic attractiveness (LIFT Fund, 2019). The majority of Myanmar migrants have a low level of education, and more than half are men between 20 and 30 years old (International Organization for Migration, 2020). Their immigration often follows a solitary process, leading to situations of social anomie in their places of residence and work (Robinne, 2021).

Thailand represents a hub of attractive opportunities (Robinne, F. 2021). With its strong economic activity and an average annual salary of $700, the country is a prime destination for Myanmar migrants, accounting for approximately 70% of all Burmese immigrants worldwide (IOM, 2024). These migrants are concentrated in urban centers like Bangkok or Samut Sakhon, where there are around 200,000 Myanmar nationals (IOM, 2024). The border with Myanmar represents another major area of concentration for Burmese migrants (IOM, 2024). Most are Karen political refugees fleeing the war between Karen factions and the military junta led by Min Aung Hlaing (McGahan & Brown, 2014). Burmese migrants primarily work in sectors such as industrial fishing, construction, or food service (IOM, 2024). They often form informal and temporary neighborhoods based on the construction sites where they are assigned (Robinne, 2021).

The routes taken by migrants and their means of transportation vary. According to UNDP (2025), while most enter Thailand overland by crossing the border, others choose the sea route to enter Malaysia. This country is also a gateway to Singapore, which has stricter entry laws for foreign workers. Malaysia and Singapore, like other countries geographically distant from Myanmar, are preferred destinations for permanent migration. This is not the case for Thailand, where more than 35% of Burmese immigrant workers return to Myanmar at least once a year (Robinne, 2021). This can be explained by the apparent geographical proximity as well as the laws governing foreign workers in Thailand, which regularly require the renewal of documents allowing workers to remain in the country (Robinne, 2021). These frequent trips between Myanmar and Thailand are often an economic burden for migrant workers, who save in advance to afford these returns (IOM, 2024). The city of Mae Sot, located in the Tak province of Thailand, is an interesting example. The urban area is mostly inhabited by Karens from Myanmar, who make regular trips between the two countries, illustrating the mobility inherent in migration. (Robinne, 2021)

Migrants, and especially refugees, are prime targets for human traffickers (IOM, 2020). Many Rohingya and Chin refugees fall victim to scams or physical and mental abuse perpetrated by smugglers during their journey to Thailand or Malaysia (McGahan & Brown, 2014). The same happens to Karen refugees, who are sometimes stuck at the Thai border and suffer violence from the Burmese military in the context of ethnic cleansing (Buchanan, 2015). In addition to these abuses during their migratory journeys, Burmese immigrants often face discrimination in their host countries, and access to the job market is often precarious or even impossible (IOM, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic during 2020-2021 weakened the position of many migrant workers, particularly in Singapore and Thailand (Transnational Institute, 2020). In Malaysia, there was a general rise in xenophobia towards the Burmese, while nationalist and populist discourses in Thailand reinforced negative stereotypes of Burmese migrants (Transnational Institute, 2020). In a constantly evolving Southeast Asia, the gradual increase in the number of migrants, particularly from Myanmar, is a trend to expect. The ongoing conflicts within the country suggest the continuation of immigration to countries where the political and economic situation is more stable.