Country Card: Myanmar

By Ffion Bright

An insight into Myanmar today (data only available prior to the 2021 coup):

  • Capital: Nay Pyi Taw

  • Ruling party: The Tatmadaw (military junta) under Min Aung Hlaing

  • Languages: Burmese (69%), Shan (6.5%), Karen (4.8%), Rakhine (4.5%), other (15.2%) (Worlddata, 2021)

  • Ethnic demographics: Bamar 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Indian 2%, Mon (2%) and others (5%) (Minority Rights Group, 2020)

  • State religion: Theravada Buddhism

  • Religious makeup: Buddhists (89%), Muslims (4%), Baptists (3%), Animists (1%), others (2.5%) (Worlddata, 2021)

  • GDP: $59.36B (WITS, 2018)

  • Exports: petroleum gas ($3.19B), dried legumes ($1.27B) and precious stones ($1.16B)  (OEC, 2022)

  • Mainly exporting to: China ($4.5B), Thailand ($3.5B), Japan ($907M)  (OEC, 2022)

  • Imports: refined petroleum ($2.88B), palm oil ($901M), light rubberised knitted fabric ($578M)  (OEC, 2022)

  • Mainly importing from: China ($4.2B), Singapore ($2.7B), Thailand ($2.1B), Indonesia ($1.2B) (OEC, 2022)

  • Countries with shared land borders: Bangladesh, China, India, Laos, Thailand

A historical timeline to understand a turbulent present:

A thriving society built on the pillars of Buddhism and monarchy, with traces of Early Neolithic civilisations from as early as 11,000 years ago, it was only with the three Anglo-Burmese wars (1824-26, 1852, 1885) that a rupture with Myanmar’s prosperous history came with entire territory falling into British hands in 1886 (Charney, 2009). The colonial rule saw to it that the monarchical and Buddhist societal foundations that had made the nation prosperous and stable were removed, first with the banishment of the monarchy to Thailand and the integration of Christianity into the public sphere in the place of Buddhism.

Many detrimental effects occurred from such an uprooting, notably the literacy rates plummeted from 60% at the start of colonial surveying to 32% according to the 1872 Census Report (British Foreign Office, 1872). This is a consequence of an education system which is transformed by the addition of a multi-tiered system of education, with new obligatory payment for the top schools. This added barriers to employment and hierarchy in the country. More societal stratification included the differing administration of colonial rule throughout the territory, which gave greater independence to the Karen hill tribes whilst tightly controlling the more urban majority. Not only did this foster differing national identities but established a basis for discrimination within ethnic and religious groups which is still present today.

The path to independence was partially facilitated by the Japanese, who made Myanmar an arena in WWII with an invasion that began in December 1941 and was completed in May 1942. This was followed by the establishment of a provisional Burmese government under the military leader opposing the British, Aung San (father of future Myanmar leader Aung San Suu Kyi). While they declared formal independence, in reality, there was a lesser degree of self-rule than what existed under British concessions between 1937 and 1942. As the war effort against Japan continued, allies and Burmese military alike turned on the Japanese, and following the end of the war the nation became truly independent under the Burma Independence Act 1947.

The independence movement of 1937-1947 was crucial as all of the Burmese future leaders for the next 40 years emerged at this time (Charney, 2009), yet the lack of joint identity, ideology and action paired with the accumulation of abandoned British and Japanese weaponry amounted in a dangerous context for Myanmar’s 1948-1958 attempt at democracy.

Myanmar’s progressively precarity is highlighted by the rule of the first Burmese Prime Minister U Nu, which saw large-scale conflict between ethnic minorities and a government leading a controversial move to communism, following the 1947 assassination of the nationalist leader Aung San. This dynamic made way for the military dictatorship in 1962, with the coup led by Ne Win and his military cohorts that pushed for a Burmese Way to Socialism with the nationalisation of all major industries.

In 1987, 70% of the currency lost all of its worth when Ne Win demonetised all bank notes not divisible by the lucky number 9 (Thant Myint-U, 2019). Unsurprisingly, this gained Burma the status of one of the top ten poorest countries in the world. Economic strife pushed Ne Win to step down in July 1988 and the ‘democracy summer’ ensued, which despite its name signified the killing of over 3,000 politically engaged citizens and the fleeing of many others (Thant Myint-U, 2019). This was during the summer that Aung San Suu Kyi began her campaigning for democracy which resulted in her house arrest in the context of the imposed martial law.

The years to follow see a fluctuating relationship with the military and the push for democracy, as represented by Aung San Suu Kyi, the years characterised by nominal progress, human rights violations, sanctions and increasing international backing being Aung San Suu Kyi. One crucial point in this timeline was Cyclone Nargis in 2008 which saw a death toll reaching up to 134,000 by some reports (ReliefWatch, 2008), heavily due to the military resistance to allow access to aid for 2 weeks after the crisis, instead prioritising the voting of their new constitution which was accepted by a 92% acceptance rate (Thant Myint-U, 2019). This dynamic only furthered both national and international popular support for Aung San Suu Kyi.

Despite the continuation of high tension between the military and the idea of democracy, progress continued towards the ideal of popular participation in governance with 2012’s partly free elections which saw the fostering of ties with the USA and the election of Suu Kyi’s party, The National League for Democracy. This however doesn’t hide the ever-present violation of human rights in the state. Even when democratic values under Aung San Suu Kyi’s party came into power officially in 2015, she and her administration met widespread international condemnation for their inaction especially in regards to the Rohingya crisis.

2021 saw military claims of voter fraud and a range of crimes against Aung San Suu Kyi’s party and yet another military coup to add to Myanmar’s turbulent history. Met with citizen-organised protests, it was not long before the military turned back to their violent disposition—including raiding homes, arresting opponents and journalists, raping women, bombing of the Kachin state and cutting off food supplies (Paddock, 2022). Whilst this horrendous degree of violence has continued, the February 2024 military conscription plan displays the desperation of military leaders to overcome manpower shortages and marks a pivotal moment after the coup. Whether this shift will further weaken the military or cause a new wave of refugees to flee the country, will have to be followed in the following weeks and months.

All in all, Myanmar’s timeline displays a relationship with state organisation which is not only divisive but grossly violent. Whilst steps towards democracy have been noticeable since independence, discrimination between different ethnicities and the tension between the military and general population is still pervasive and obstructs any lasting legacy of democracy in the nation. New hopes that the joint fight of minorities and the general civilians will accumulate in unity against a common enemy remains to be substantiated with any evidence.

References

British Foreign Office (1872) British Census Records and Reports 1872-1931. Network Myanmar. 

Charney, Michael W. (2009). A History of Modern Burma. Cambridge University Press.

Minority Rights Group. (2023). Myanmar. Minorityrights.org. https://minorityrights.org/country/myanmar/

OEC. (2022). Burma (MMR) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners. The Observatory of Economic Complexity. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/mmr

Paddock, R. C. (2022, December 9). Myanmar’s Coup and Its Aftermath, Explained. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/article/myanmar-news-protests-coup.html

ReliefWeb. 2008. “Myanmar Mourns Cyclone Dead; Aid Pressure Grows - Myanmar | ReliefWeb.” Reliefweb.int. May 20, 2008. https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-mourns-cyclone-dead-aid-pressure-grows.

Thant Myint-U. (2019). The Hidden History of Burma: Race, Capitalism, and the Crisis of Democracy in the 21st Century. W. W. Norton & Company.

WITS. (2018). World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) | Data on Export, Import, Tariff, NTM. Worldbank.org. https://wits.worldbank.org/Default.aspx

WorldDataInfo. (2021). Myanmar: country data and statistics. Worlddata.info. https://www.worlddata.info/asia/burma/index.php