Identity Politics in India: A Brief Overview
By Kaiyi Pan
Abstract
Identity politics has been a mainstream tactic Western politicians utilize to gain success during their elections. One example was the 2016 election in the United States of America, where former president Donald Trump employed white identity politics to gain popularity (Tesler, 2021). Despite the prevalence of diverse religions and their significant influence on Indian society, identity politics is frequently overlooked in analysing Asian regions, including India (O'Reilly, 2022). This article offers a concise overview of identity politics in the nation, with a particular emphasis on caste and religion.
Background
Identity Politics
Identity politics, a word that traces back to the late twentieth century, is used by different countries, governments, and communities in different contexts for different purposes, from initially being defined as “violent ethnic conflict,” to political movements derived from injustice experienced by marginalized or excluded groups based on their identity (N., 2021, p. 1). Due to its analytically imprecise definition, identity politics in this article will be referred to as politics or political positions that are solely based on the identity or “interests and perspectives of social groups with which people identify,” such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, and more (N., 2021, p. 1). This is because identity is often manipulated to produce political claims, spread political ideologies, and lead political actions—it is a strategy commonly utilized nowadays by politicians to gain political power during electoral events.
India
Located in South Asia and being the most populous country in the world (Biswas & Nazmi, 2023), India is one of the emerging economies among other Asian countries, particularly as China’s growth slows down amid a post-pandemic recovery (Reuters, 2023). It is a multiparty democracy, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in charge of the country's administration (Freedom House, 2022). However, despite India’s democratic political system and its provision of civil liberties, such as the freedom of expression and religion, institutions, namely Freedom House (an association which assesses the level of freedom of democratic nations), pointed out that the government “has presided over discriminatory policies and a rise in persecution affecting the Muslim population”; moreover, under Modi, intimidation of media professionals, NGOs, and other government critics has substantially escalated (Freedom House, 2022).
Identity Politics in India
In Shilpa N.’s paper on “Identity Politics in India–Its Various Dimensions” (2021), India is to be described as “one of the most diverse countries in the world.” (p. 37). This accounts for its immensely high population, diverse and complex social and political dynamics, and “multidimensional social fault lines”: from more than 19,500 languages and dialects being spoken to the six main religions (Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism), caste and ethnicity, and more (Vakilsearch, 2023). Hence, the state is seen as an "active contributor to identity politics through the creation and maintenance of state structures which define and then recognize people in terms of certain identities" for its diversity in cultures and beliefs (Dam, 2011, p. 915).
Caste
Caste is defined as a social community group that is placed in hereditary rankings, usually evident in traditional societies of South Asia (Madan, 2023). The caste system contains mainly four categories, from highest to lowest: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Precisely, 68% of the Indian population self-identify as belonging to the lower castes, whereas a mere 4% refer to themselves as Brahmins (Sahgal et al., 2021). The caste system has brought India a range of benefits and concerns while also being utilized or viewed in various ways. For instance, in the past, the Ambedkar’s Commission designed the policy of reservations, known as protective discrimination, granting underprivileged sections of society with certain privileges and removing the stigmas of impurity (e.g., “untouchability”) for the Shudras-–the worker caste; meanwhile, the Mandal’s Commission views caste as a vital political resource to secure political and economic gains. This is because the caste system is inherently oppressive, especially for the Shudras, as they “suffer from the stigma of ritual purity and lived in abject poverty, illiteracy, and denial of political power” (Dam, 2011, p. 916).
The state supports the Shudras through protective discrimination, reinforcing their group identity (Dam, 2011, p. 916). This has led to the domination of political parties in the upper and lower caste, where Indian political leaders use caste idioms and such to “extract mileage in electoral politics” (Dam, 2011, p. 916). However, strengthening Indians’ caste identity may also impede the progression of India’s social structure of class organization and deepen the roots of hierarchical segregation.
Therefore, caste-based identity politics has a dual role in Indian society and polity. While they make Indian society more democratized, they also slow down the development of class-based organizations (Dam, 2011, p. 916). Consequently, it could be said that caste has been slowly reshaping Indian politics, as it empowers newly emerging groups, increases the intensity of confrontational politics, and has the potential to drive the state into a growing crisis of governability.
All in all, it demonstrates the importance of the caste identity in Indian politics, highlighting its heavy influential power in this democratic state. This also leaves us with a question: Will the caste system in India continuously influence its politics in the future, or will the state attempt to diminish the power of caste groups in order to maintain governability and resolve the hierarchical culture in Indian society?
Religion
Similar to caste, religion is also considered to be one of the most influential aspects of identity politics in India, taking into account the variety of mainstream beliefs in the country. (Kramer, 2021). This is especially evident in its current leading right-wing political party—the Bharatiya Janata (BTJ)—having policies that align with Hindutva, a Hindu nationalist ideology, ever since 2014 (Banerjee, 2005, p. 3116).
With Hinduism being the religion of most of the Indian population (81%), majoritarianism—the idea that a population's “numerical majority” should ultimately decide how a matter will be resolved—arises (Capaldi & Letki, n.d.). After the BJP, which together with its "Hindu" supporters provided political cohesion to a developing Hindu consciousness, entered a coalition ministry in 1998, this assertiveness is thought to have become stronger.
While religion may influence Indian politics, politics might also impact how people view their own and others' religious identities. According to The Pew Research Center’s study of India by O’Reilly (2022), 84% of Indian adults claim that religion is “very important” in their lives, with an even greater population saying that religious tolerance is essential to being “truly Indian.” Moreover, a survey conducted during the increasing tensions between the Hindu majority and Muslim population (accounted for 14%) as a result of India’s electoral politics revealed that major religious groups often view themselves as being vastly different from the rest of the people. For instance, according to the study, two-thirds of Hindus believe they are significantly different from Muslims, while just 64% of Muslims responded with the same kind.
Thus, it could be said that religion plays a vital role in the lives of people in India by strongly impacting their political views and stances and helping to shape India’s political sphere. Not only does religious identity influence Indian politics, political tensions also create deeper segregation between Indians with different religions.
The interdependence between different identity groups
It is also noteworthy that identity makers operate interdependently, for they have overlapping influences. Dam (2011), the author of “The Myth of Identity Politics in India,” provides us with an example: “homogenous linguistic groups may be divided by caste affiliations that may be subdivided by religious orientations or all may be subsumed under a broader ethnic claim” (p. 916).
However, religious identity seems to be the solution to other identity conflicts—for instance, conflicts between different caste groups—because they are ultimately all unified under the identity scheme of religion, be it Hinduism, Islam, or anything else (Dam, 2011, p. 918).
Conclusion
Overall, it could be seen that identity politics play a significant role in Indian society as well as its political parties. Social fragmentation has deepened divisions along caste, religious, and ethnic lines. It implies the possibility of impacting the social fabric of the nation, potentially leading to even greater tensions among different identity groups. As a result of growing political divisions based on religious ideologies and castes, such intensified relations among identity groups also point towards a future of magnified polarization among the Indian communities and society.
Amid growing tensions, marginalized communities, such as the Shudras, may remain hindered in achieving economic and social progress. In fact, they might be increasingly alienated in adversities, continuously facing discrimination and exclusion based on their identities.
The future actions of India’s policymakers are crucial in addressing these identity-based divisions and fostering inclusivity. It remains to be seen how successful such efforts will be. Past examples from the Commission’s previous efforts show that their support for certain underprivileged sections of Indian society has only led to a strengthened sense of caste, class, and social identity among those communities.
This article provides readers with an overview of what identity politics is like in India and how it influences Indian society and politics. Readers with an interest in this topic are encouraged to make further delves into the works that have been cited within this article.
As India grapples with these challenges, one must consider the broader implications of identity politics and reflect on the role of individuals and policymakers in shaping the nation’s future.
References
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